Shine Like the Sun: Appendix B: Catalogue of Petrofabrics This appendix provides petrographic descriptions of all petrofabrics described in the main text. Some descriptions are more complete than others. The ordering is alphabetical, by the full name for each petrofabric. Short forms which may be used in the text are cross-referenced to the proper full name. CATEGORIES Name of Petrofabric: Each name is followed by the name of the modern country from which the petrofabric is considered to originate, whether proven (e.g., "Egypt," "Iraq") or postulated (e.g., "Iraq?," "probably Iran"). Samples: total number of samples thin-sectioned followed in parentheses by sites from which samples were obtained with number of samples from that site, for which see site gazetteer in Appendix C. Overview: Subjective assessment of significance of petrofabric group, including types produced, and importance of production centre. Macroscopic paste description: Description of paste with aid of 10× hand-lens, including Munsell colour if recorded. Petrographic description: Description of petrographic attributes of group. In these descriptions "occasional" means that a significant majority of the samples do not contain the given inclusion at all; "rare" means that something of the order of one in ten samples contain the inclusion. Any reader having problems with these should read Chapter 2. All percentages represent proportion of total section. Distinction: Characteristics that distinguish this petrofabric group from others with which it may otherwise be confused. Location: Rationale for attribution to site or country of origin, such as analysis of wasters. Micrograph: Reference to where an illustration may be found. THE PETROFABRICS ANI(?) PETROFABRIC (Turkey/Armenia?): 1 sample (Ani 1) Overview: Single sample of a possible waster from an important town in medieval Armenia with reputation as possible production centre (Rogers 1989). Macroscopic paste description: Stonepaste, off-white, sandy. Petrographic description:e body, comprising about 20% clear, 10% slightly cloudy, 3% cloudy, and trace very cloudy grains, and also includes 5% polycrystalline. Distinction: Predominance of clear quartz grains provides parallels of Damascus (includes rounded grains), Mashhad (higher general abundance and proportionally more clear grains), and Rayy (higher general abundance, some rounded grains). Location: The sample from Ani (ANI.04) was badly fired and had a plain turquoise glaze which had run over some kiln ash on the foot and so may be a waster. Although this is not enough for a reliable attribution, tentative attribution to Ani seems reasonable at this stage. Micrograph: None. BASRA PETROFABRIC (Iraq): 80 samples (Basra 2 kiln rods and 8 further pieces from Basra kiln, Samarra' 6, Nippur 3, Hira 3, Lasail 2, Samarqand 1, Dhahran 3, Zabid 6, Ghulayfiqa 3, Fustat 11, Siraf 24, Susa 8). Overview: Very important eighth to twelfth century production centre, sole producer of Iraqi Lustre-painted wares and Blue-painted wares; also produced other major wares. Macroscopic paste description: Fired-clay body, fine largely featureless matrix, occasional large rounded grains of quartz or feldspar (sometimes quite abundant); pale yellow buff colour. Petrographic description: Fine clay matrix, possessing a very fine featureless groundmass, and inclusions in a bimodal grainsize distribution. The fine population consists of about 2- 3% angular quartz, with trace feldspar, amphibole, and biotite, all very well sorted, subrounded to subangular grains with a mode diameter of about 0.01 mm and maximum of 0.05 mm (note that fluctuations in thin-section thickness will affect the abundance). Given the fineness of the inclusions, it is possible in some cases that the fine oxidized and platy inclusions identified as "biotite" and "amphibole" are in fact something else, such as platy haematite or fragments of argillite recognizable from centres upstream. Rarely the content of these ferromagnesian minerals (and/or including haematite) rises to 1% or more. The coarse population, very well sorted rounded to well-rounded grains between 0.25 mm and 1 mm in diameter, consists of rounded grains of trace to 10% quartz, mostly clear to slightly cloudy, with predominantly undulose extinctions; trace to 2% cloudy untwinned feldspar, trace to 1% clear or cloudy plagioclase, and occasional trace cherty- textured felsic volcanic rock and perthite. The abundance of coarse grains often appears to be related to the thickness of the vessel wall but not consistently so. The highest abundance of coarse sand among the material from Basra is about 7% of total volume, although a sherd found in Yemen considered to be of this petrofabric has 10% coarse grains. Distinction: This petrofabric is distinctively different from most other Iraqi petrofabrics, which generally have a higher proportion of ferromagnesian minerals, volcanics, and other inclusions from the Taurus-Zagros mountains and the Jazira. Some petrofabrics of unknown origin are sufficiently similar to suggest close geographic relationship. Location: Samples include two pieces of rod-shaped kiln furniture, and several further fragments found in a kiln in the region of al-Zubayr/Old Basra (see main text and Appendix C). The petrofabric fits well into what is known of the sedimentology of the region, with nothing above fine silt grade being deposited by the Tigris-Euphrates system, and a distinct contribution to the sediments from aeolian sources. Micrograph: Figs. 3.2, 3.8, 3.12. DAMASCUS(?) PETROFABRIC (Syria): 60 samples (Fustat 30, Jerusalem 10, Ma‘arrat al-Nu‘man [Bartels Gift] 6, Karak 3, Dhiban 1, Ani 1, Haacht 1, Grosmount 1, Lincoln 1, London 1, Trondheim 1, unknown 4). Overview: Damascus would seem to have been one of the predominant centres of Ayyubid Underglaze-painted wares including all of Syrian Groups Four "S-back," Five "arc- back," and Six "dash-back" styles. This petrofabric includes the overwhelming majority of sampled Syrian Polychrome wares, and all the wares with sketchy decoration assigned to Group Six, including the Lustre-painted wares. As such Damascus would appear to be the most significant Syrian production centre. However, this appraisal may be biased by the large number of samples from Fustat, Ani, Jerusalem, Dhiban, and northwest Europe, which may reflect a trade area dominated by Damascus. After about 1250 Damascus seems to be the sole Syrian stonepaste pottery production centre. Macroscopic paste description: Stonepaste body, usually white and at times very sandy and porous; rounded grains may be visible. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body usually comprising a moderately sorted population of angular and larger rounded grains fused by filamentous glass. Calculated grainsize mode of 0.0125 - 0.025 mm with maximum diameter of 0.35 mm. The body comprises about 40-60% quartz, comprising 40-50% clear, 1-6% slightly cloudy, and rare trace to 1% cloudy quartz, and also including up to trace polycrystalline quartz, trace and rarely up to 1% sheared quartz. Other inclusions comprise very rare traces of feldspar, chert, and carbonate. Quartz grains have straight to weakly undulose extinction, while fluid inclusions are found in broad bands, and lamellae and vacuoles are at times quite large. The larger rounded quartz grains indicate a raw material comprising a sand of grainsize average of about 0.3 mm diameter. Distinction: This is entirely unlike any other petrofabric defined for Syria, or indeed any other region, perhaps the closest being that of Rayy and Mashhad, neither of which contain rounded grains of this size. Location: Evidence for production of pottery at Damascus is formidable for the fourteenth century; indeed, the only unequivocal evidence for stonepaste-bodied wares in this period seems to be for this centre (see Chapter 5). Petrographic analysis of fourteenth-century pottery from Syria has revealed a single petrofabric. The occurrence of evidence for a single centre combined with the existence of a single petrofabric is not considered a coincidence, but a direct correlation. Hence the Damascus(?) Petrofabric has been tentatively defined by analysis of pottery of Mamluk date. Micrograph: Fig. 5.2; see also Mason 1996, fig. 3.3. FUSTAT(?) "CA-NILE 1" PETROFABRIC (Egypt): 10 samples (Fustat 9, Ghulayfiqa 1). Overview: Numerically the most important body used in production of first phase of Egyptian Fatimid-period Lustre- painted wares. Macroscopic paste description: Fired-clay body, porous and usually grey-buff (e.g., Munsell 10YR 7/3), with some pink- buff bodies (e.g., 7.5YR 7/4). Petrographic description: Fired- clay matrix, with 7-15% quartz, largely clear with some slightly cloudy, straight to undulose extinctions, moderate to well sorted, rounded to subrounded, mode grainsize diameter of 0.05 mm and maximum diameter up to 0.3 mm (aeolian sand inclusions), but more commonly about 0.15 mm; 1-4% plagioclase roughly equally divided between a finer (diameter mode of 0.03 mm) population with sharp twin boundaries and a coarser population (as quartz) with fuzzy twin boundaries; 2-3% opaques mostly of same granulometry as fine plagioclase; up to 2% each of microcline and untwinned feldspar, mostly of same granulometry as quartz; trace to 2% amphibole; up to 1% pyroxene as fine plagioclase; up to 1% biotite; up to 1% basalt of plagioclase with glassy interstices; up to trace cherty- textured felsic volcanic rock. The quartz may also represent two well-sorted populations rather than one moderately sorted, as it appears that the finer population characterized by the fine plagioclase is close to the population of the Fustat "Nile" Petrofabric (see below), which does include quartz. The body is also considerably more calcareous than the "Nile" Petrofabric, suggesting that it represents a mixture of Nile alluvium with at least one other material that includes a highly calcareous clay and the more quartzose mineral assemblage. Whether this mixing is by human agency remains to be seen. Distinction: "Ca-Nile 1" is distinguished from "Ca-Nile 2" by a lack of carbonate inclusions, a generally higher quartz content, and a lower content of ferromagnesian minerals. There are also minor chemical differences, such as lower potassium and, on average, higher magnesium. Although there are no visible carbonate grains, the CaO content is relatively high and is exactly the same as for the carbonate-bearing "Ca- Nile 2" Petrofabric. The carbonate grains may have been crushed to a finer consistency and thus dispersed throughout the clay. This would be consistent with the buff colour of the body, as the finely dispersed CaO could then react with the iron. The higher quartz content is probably due to the addition of quartz, as coarse rounded grains, and also crushed angular grains of sizes larger than Nile inclusions are often found. Location: The relationship with Nilotic attributes supports an Egyptian origin for this petrofabric, postulated on the predominance of this petrofabric among early Egyptian Lustre- painted wares. Attribution to Fustat must remain tentative until actual evidence of production is analysed. Note: This body was formerly considered to represent an original, unmodified raw material (Mason and Keall 1990), but the larger sample size provided by this study appears to show it as part of a continuum with the other Nile-mixture group. Micrograph: Fig. 4.1. FUSTAT(?) "CA-NILE 2" PETROFABRIC (Egypt): 14 samples (Fustat 13, Ghulayfiqa 1). Overview: Important body used in production of Fatimid- period Lustre-painted wares in the mid-twelfth century, and of coarser glazed wares of early Fatimid period (Slip-incised, Polyglazed wares, etc.). Macroscopic paste description: Porous fired-clay body, pink to red (Munsell 5YR 6/6 is common). Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 3-12% quartz, clear to slightly cloudy, strongly undulose to undulose extinctions, moderate to poor sorting, well-rounded to subangular, with diameter mode of 0.04 mm and maximum of 0.26 mm; 1-3% plagioclase roughly equally divided between a finer (diameter mode of 0.03 mm) population with sharp twin boundaries and a coarser population (diameter mode of 0.05mm) with fuzzy twin boundaries; 1-3% opaques; trace to 5% carbonate; trace to 2% untwinned feldspar; trace to 3% amphibole at times found in polyminerallic grains with quartz; trace to 3% pyroxene; trace to 2% biotite; up to 1% each of glassy felsic volcanics and basalt of fine plagioclase lathes in opaque; occasional trace amounts of microcline, muscovite, and phytoliths. The quartz may also represent two well-sorted populations rather than one poorly sorted, as it appears that the finer population characterized by the fine plagioclase is close to the population of the Fustat "Nile" Petrofabric (see below), which does include quartz. The body is also considerably more calcareous than the "Nile" Petrofabric with visible carbonate inclusions. This would suggest that this body represents a mixture of Nile alluvium with at least one other material, including a highly calcareous clay and the more quartzose mineral assemblage. In at least one example there is a pocket of unmixed silt, about 1 mm across, with inclusions characteristic of the "Nile" Petrofabric. Distinction: This petrofabric most closely resembles Nile alluvium, and in some cases is barely discernible from it, except for the presence of carbonate inclusions. Although there is considerable variability within this group, each particular ceramic type will generally have a more restricted variability. For instance, the Polychrome-glazed group appears closer to Nile alluvium in thin-section, while Egyptian Hatched slip- incised ware generally has relatively low total mineral abundances. It is interesting to note that this depletion does not appear to be in inverse proportion to carbonate abundance, which is contrary to expectations if the clay-mixing hypothesis is valid. Location: As with "Ca-Nile 1," the relationship with Nilotic attributes supports an Egyptian origin for this petrofabric, postulated on the importance of this petrofabric in the production of early Egyptian Lustre-painted wares. Attribution to Fustat must remain tentative until actual evidence of production is analysed. Micrograph: Fig. 4.2. FUSTAT(?) "HIGH-CA" PETROFABRIC (Egypt): 7 samples (Fustat 7). Overview: Numerically the most important body used in production of late Fatimid-period Lustre-painted wares and late Fatimid Underglaze-painted wares. Macroscopic paste description: Fired-clay body, generally pinkish-red (Munsell 5YR 6/6 appears dominant), and is quite hard with an even fracture. The large rounded quartz grains and carbonate grains are clearly visible, particularly with a 10× hand lens. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 4-7% quartz, principally clear to slightly cloudy, with undulose, straight, and strongly undulose extinctions; generally 3-5% but up to 16% carbonate grains, and up to 1% untwinned feldspars and opaques. The carbonate grains range in size from fine sand grade up to about 0.5 mm in diameter. They have mostly lost structural integrity but in one case comprise fine micritic material with occasional foraminifers. The boundaries between the grains and the surrounding ceramic matrix are poorly defined, suggesting that the grains do not represent indurated limestone fragments. The carbonate inclusions are considered to be natural inclusions in the clay. The quartz and feldspar are often found as large rounded grains (average diameter about 0.4 mm), although finer angular fragments are numerically more dominant, suggesting that the sand was processed (crushed) and added to the clay mix deliberately. Chemically this body is highly calcareous and quite low in alumina (36% CaO, 8% Al203). Distinction: This petrofabric appears to be easily distinguished from other Egyptian petrofabrics ("Semi-glazed," "Nile," and "Ca-Nile" group), which all have a much wider range of inclusions. The general description of rounded quartz and carbonate is, however, similar to some petrofabrics attributed to the southern littoral of the Mediterranean (Mason, in press), including North Africa ("Hafsid" Petrofabric) and the southern Levant (Qaysariyya and "Shipwreck" Petrofabrics). Location: As with the other petrofabrics attributed to Fustat, except "Nile" Petrofabric, the only basis for the attribution of this petrofabric is the weight of sherdage of this type and the traditional attribution of these wares to Fustat. Micrograph: Figs. 4.1, 4.2. FUSTAT "NILE" PETROFABRIC (Egypt): 8 samples (Fustat 8). Overview: Body used in production of Mamluk period Slip- incised and Slip-painted Lead-glazed wares. Not used in an unmodified state in the period covered in this volume. Macroscopic paste description: Fired-clay body, red (Munsell 5YR 5/6 is common), and quite soft with a porous and open structure. The range of inclusions, particularly the ferromagnesian minerals, is clearly evident with a 10× hand lens. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 9-15% quartz, clear to cloudy with straight to strongly undulose extinction, moderate sorting, subrounded to subangular, with diameter mode of 0.035 mm and maximum of 0.26 mm; 4-7% plagioclase, mostly clear with sharp twin boundaries, occasional larger cloudy and fuzzy examples; 2-5% clinopyroxene, mostly pale green but some colourless; about 4% opaques; 1-2% amphiboles; trace to 1% each of untwinned feldspars, biotite, phytoliths, and basalt of fine plagioclase laths in opaque; occasional trace amounts of glassy felsic volcanic (possibly confused with phytoliths), microcline, epidote, metamorphic schists, and muscovite. The phytoliths may have been added as ash. Matson (1973) describes the addition of ash to a clay in Egypt, yet phytoliths appear to be restricted solely to the "Nile" Petrofabric, or to derivatives of it. Bulk qualitative chemical analysis of the Mamluk pieces of this petrofabric shows a moderately high aluminous content, low calcium content, and high iron content (15% Al203, 5.6% CaO, 9% FeO). Distinction: The wide range and distinctive nature of the inclusions make the "Nile" Petrofabric easily distinguishable from all other petrofabrics studied to date, although distinction from other regions of the Nile may pose a problem. Location: Samples include one waster from Fustat. The description given here generally fits other descriptions of Nile alluvium, including those given in studies by this author on Nubian pottery (Mason 1987) and Egyptian Pharaonic pottery (unpublished); and also studies by others (Nicholson and Rose 1985, Nordstrom 1985, Porat 1989, Hays and Hassan 1974; Alexander Smith also undertook a major study of the petrography of Egyptian clays at Oxford University, but this work is not yet published). Micrograph: None. FUSTAT(?) FATIMID STONEPASTE AND PROTO- STONEPASTE PETROFABRICS (Egypt): 2 proto- stonepaste and 12 stonepaste samples (proto-stonepaste: Fustat 1, unknown 1; stonepaste: Fustat 11, Zabid 1). Overview: Proto-stonepastes are primarily found in the Egyptian Group One Lustre-wares (975-1025). True stonepastes are primarily found in Egyptian Group Two Lustre-wares (1025-1075) and in the, Incised-ware pieces equivalent in date to Lustre Groups Two to Four (1025-1175) and possibly also early Ayyubid date (c. 1175-1250). Macroscopic paste description: Proto-stonepaste appears as dense and hard buff clay. Stonepaste appears variable, some being extremely friable, and some quite dense. Petrographic description: Proto-stonepaste consists in thin- section of about 10% quartz, 15-20% of remnants of glass additive, and some 50-60% matrix, the remainder void. The matrix is glassy, locally vesicular, and appears to be mostly clay. The bulk of the true stonepastes comprise 50-60% quartz, and about 10% glass additive remnants, with about 10% of the section comprising glass which bonds the material together. Some of the bodies of Incised-wares are poorly bonded, with about 30% quartz, as little as 3% glass remnants, and larger amounts of clay matrix with perhaps as much as 40% void. In some of these cases one wonders what is keeping the material together. The stonepaste bodies comprise about 50% quartz, including 5-30% clear, 25-40% slightly cloudy, 1-10% cloudy and up to 2% very cloudy; also including up to 3% equant polycrystalline, up 2% "sheared," and of undulose to strongly undulose and some straight extinctions. Other inclusions comprise trace to 1% untwinned feldspar, up to 1% carbonate, and occasional trace brownish chert, microcline, and plagioclase. Grains are angular, generally ground to very fine sand grade, with some to coarse and medium silt grade. There are no obvious rounded grains, except those partly dissolved by the lead-rich frits, but the maximum grainsize diameter is 0.6 mm. The source material used for Mamluk Blue and White pottery is considered to have been in rounded grains about 0.9 mm in diameter, although in many examples the quartz was crushed so that no rounded grains remain. In some Fustat clay- bodied pottery quartz grains of a similar nature have been interpreted as being added, perhaps deliberately. The quartz in some of the Fatimid and early Ayyubid stonepastes is essentially similar to the Mamluk period sand in its degree of cloudiness, and it would be possible for the sand to be crushed so that no rounded grains exists. Hence, the source of quartz may be the same. The range of values is certainly not as standardized as for the Mamluk production, but this is understandable given the formative nature of the technology in this period, and the acceptability of relatively unreliable raw materials. Distinction: The characteristics described here are certainly enough to enable distinction between Fustat and other early stonepaste petrofabrics such as Raqqa-1 (cloudier, sheared quartz), Damascus(?) (clear quartz), "Tell Minis" (clearer quartz), and Kashan(?) (dominantly chert). Location: As with the other petrofabrics attributed to Fustat, except the "Nile" Petrofabric, the only basis for attribution of this petrofabric is the weight of sherdage of types traditionally attributed to the site, although wasters of Mamluk date have been analysed from the site. Micrograph: Figs. 4.1, 4.2. FUSTAT STONEPASTE PETROFABRIC (Egypt): 10 samples (Fustat 10). Overview: Petrofabric of the fourteenth to fifteenth century pottery produced at Fustat (Mason 1996). Macroscopic paste description: Porous granular stonepaste. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body usually comprising a moderately sorted population of angular and larger rounded grains fused by filamentous glass. Body comprises about 60% quartz including about 40% clear, 10-20% slightly cloudy, up to 8% cloudy, up to 1% very cloudy, and including trace to 2% equant polycrystalline and 5-10% sheared, with undulose to strongly undulose and some straight extinctions. Other inclusions comprise 1-4% micritic carbonate; up to 2% brownish chert; trace to 2% cloudy untwinned feldspar. All inclusions are angular with some rounded larger grains, mode of 0.05 mm diameter and maximum of 1.0 mm. The source material used is considered to have been in rounded grains about 0.9 mm in diameter, although in many examples the quartz was crushed so that no rounded grains remain. Distinction: This appears to be somewhat clearer and have more carbonate, feldspars, and chert than is normal in earlier stonepastes considered to have been made at Fustat. Of centres producing similar wares, Damascus is considerably clearer in its quartz and contains no other inclusion. Location: Samples include three wasters from the site (Mason 1996). Micrograph: Mason and Keall 1990, fig. 12. "GARRUS" PETROFABRIC (northwestern Iran?): 1 sample (unknown 1). Overview: Defined by analysis of "Garrus" ware, an art- historically well-known type of Lead-glazed Slip-excised ware traditionally attributed to the Garrus region of northwest Iran. Macroscopic paste description: Dense red fired clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 8% each of quartz and carbonate, 3% each of plagioclase, untwinned feldspars, amphibole, and biotite, and 2% of carbonate. All inclusions except carbonate are of medium silt grade; carbonate grains may be up to 3 mm in diameter. Distinction: Somewhat similar to the Gurgan petrofabrics, but the carbonate grains are considerable coarser. Most other Iranian clay petrofabrics of wares of similar types contain volcanics (Nishapur, Sirjan). Location: No positive link with Garrus can be proved, but then neither can it as yet be disproved. Micrograph: Fig. 6.2. GURGAN(?) PETROFABRIC (Gurgan?, Iran): 4 samples (Gurgan 1, unknown 3). Overview: Possibly important stonepaste ceramic production centre in twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. Macroscopic paste description: White stonepaste, moderately porous and friable. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising angular predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body consists of about 40% crystalline quartz, predominantly slightly cloudy with a significant cloudy component, about 5% "sheared" quartz, mostly straight extinction. Other inclusions are 10% chert and trace feldspar. The mode grainsize diameter is about 0.02 mm, with a maximum of 0.20 mm. Distinction: The presence of 2-10% chert distinguishes this from most other petrofabrics, with other chert-bearing petrofabrics having cloudier quartz ("Rayy 4," "Dragon" of Mason 1996) or containing polycrystalline quartz ("Rayy 4"). Location: Bahrami (1949, pl. 8, left) published a waster of a "Silhouette" style Underglaze-painted piece, while excavations by Kiani (1984) provided further evidence of production at Gurgan in the form of kilns. Speculation by Kiani that finds of Lustre-painted, Mina'i, and other wares in and around an ordinary kiln indicate that these wares were made in Gurgan, requires further substantiation, but it does appear that there are reasonable grounds to suggest that Gurgan was a production centre for stonepaste wares. Although no stonepaste wasters from Gurgan were available for analysis, it is theoretically a logical assumption that the bulk of wares excavated on the site are of local manufacture. Unfortunately the bulk of stonepaste wares sampled from Gurgan were of the Kashan(?) Petrofabric, but the present petrofabric was the second most dominant among the group. Micrograph: Fig. 6.4. "GURGAN 1" PETROFABRIC (Gurgan?, Iran): 4 samples (Gurgan 4). Overview: Dominant clay-bodied petrofabric from analysis of pottery from Gurgan. Includes a number of Slip-incised and Slip-painted wares, and a "Sari" ware piece. Macroscopic paste description: Hard, dense red clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with inclusions dominated by 8-10% subrounded grains of crystalline carbonate, with 5-6% subangular quartz, 1-2% untwinned feldspars, trace to 2% plagioclase, 1-2% biotite, trace to 2% muscovite, up to 2% amphibole, and trace to 1% shale fragments. The grains are poorly sorted, with a mode diameter of about 0.05 mm, but ranging up to 0.3 mm. Distinction: Less sorted and lower quartz and feldspars than "Gurgan 2" ; "Gurgan 3" lacks carbonate and is finer. Most other Iranian clay petrofabrics of wares of these types contain volcanics (Nishapur, Sirjan). Location: One of a number of similar petrofabrics from Gurgan. Micrograph: Fig. 6.2. "GURGAN 2" PETROFABRIC (Gurgan?, Iran): 1 sample (Gurgan 1). Overview: Single Slip-painted piece form Gurgan. Macroscopic paste description: Hard, dense red clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with moderately sorted predominantly angular grains 0.05-0.1 mm in diameter, comprising approximately 8% quartz, 3% biotite, 2% plagioclase, 2% untwinned feldspars, 2% muscovite, 2% carbonate, 1% microcline feldspar, 1% amphibole, 1% opaque, and trace clinopyroxene. Distinction: Similar to the first Gurgan group, but proportionally higher in quartz and feldspars, and much better sorted. Most other Iranian clay petrofabrics of wares of these types contain volcanics (Nishapur, Sirjan). Location: One of a number of similar petrofabrics from Gurgan. Micrograph: Fig. 6.2. "GURGAN 3" PETROFABRIC (Gurgan?, Iran): 3 samples (Gurgan 3). Overview: Slip-painted and Slip-incised wares from Gurgan. Macroscopic paste description: Hard, dense red clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with inclusions having mode diameter less than 0.01 mm and maximum of 0.05 mm, comprising 3-5% quartz, 1-3% untwinned feldspar, 1-3% biotite, trace-2% muscovite, 1% amphibole, trace-1% opaque, trace plagioclase, and up to trace clinopyroxene. Distinction: Mineralogy is not too dissimilar from the other Gurgan groups, apart from the total lack of carbonate, but the grainsize is considerably finer, with no grains over 0.05 mm in diameter, and the majority under 0.01 mm. Most other Iranian clay petrofabrics of wares of these types contain volcanics (Nishapur, Sirjan). Location: One of a number of similar petrofabrics from Gurgan. Micrograph: Fig. 6.2. HALABIYA PETROFABRIC (eastern Syria): 2 samples (Halabiya 2). Overview: The sampled sherds have stonepaste bodies and, although distorted, represent rim fragments from a flat-rimmed vessel and from a conical, or biconical, bowl. Both are very similar to many of the wasters attributed to Ma‘arrat al- Nu‘man (see Chapter 5). Macroscopic paste description: Porous, granular white stonepaste. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body of quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body comprises about 50% angular quartz, predominantly strongly undulose to undulose extinction, including 3-5% clear, 15-20% slightly cloudy, 10-15% cloudy, and 4-10% very cloudy quartz; also including trace equant polycrystalline and 4-5% "sheared" quartz. Fluid inclusions in the quartz are quite large and visible as such (i.e., above 1 ). Other inclusions comprise occasional trace amounts of untwinned feldspar and chert. Moderately sorted, with mode grainsize diameter about 0.04 mm and maximum 0.5 mm. Distinction: Very similar to some of the "Ma‘arrat" Petrofabric samples; however, the consistent feldspar content of "Ma‘arrat" is absent or in trace amounts. Had such large numbers of "Ma‘arrat" samples not been analysed this single parameter might not have been seen as sufficient to separate the two groups, but the consistently high feldspar content of the "Ma‘arrat" group justifies separation. Location: This petrofabric is defined by analysis of pottery found at Halabiya, north of Dar al-Zor on the Euphrates. The samples are two out of three warped sherds which are fused together, and hence constitute a waster. Micrograph: None. "HIRA 2" PETROFABRIC (Iraq): 2 samples (Hira 1, Dhahran 1). Overview: Minor ninth century south-central Iraqi centre producing Turquoise-glazed wares. Macroscopic paste description: Fired-clay body, porous. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 3-10% carbonate, 3-5% quartz, trace to 1% untwinned feldspar, trace amounts of plagioclase, biotite, and opaque, with up to trace amphibole and clinopyroxene. Grainsize diameter is predominantly around 0.1 mm. Location: Although Hira is very near the site of Kufa, historically reputed to be an important ceramic production centre, there is no petrofabric that appears to have a preferred distribution in this area. However, the distinctive feature of this petrofabric — the high carbonate content — would be explained by Kufa's proximity to outcrops of the Euphrates limestone west of the alluvial plain (al-Naqib 1967). Micrograph: None. KASHAN(?) PETROFABRIC (Iran): 55 samples (Siraf 2, Rayy 9, Ghubeyra 15, Samarqand 1, Gurgan 4, Sirjan 3, Ani 3, remainder of unknown origin). Overview: Premier Iranian production centre of twelfth to early fourteenth centuries, sole producer of Iranian Lustre- painted and Mina'i wares. Underglaze-painted wares were also made at Kashan, as attested by "Pin-wheel" style wasters and sampled examples of "Willow-scroll" and "Silhouette" styles, although sampled examples of the latter were also made elsewhere (see Chapter 6). Macroscopic paste description: Dense white stonepaste. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. This petrofabric is particularly characterized by the very high content of chert, which takes up to 50% of the body, with an additional 5-10% of crystalline quartz, which is mostly clear to slightly cloudy, with some polycrystalline grains, and mostly undulose but also straight and strongly undulose extinctions. Grains very well sorted, subangular to angular. Also included are up to 2% each of opaques and muscovite, plus up to 1% of what appears to be dark brown haematized amphibole. The grainsize distribution is quite coarse with a maximum diameter of about 0.3-0.4 mm, but the optical nature of the chert and the advanced degree of bonding with the glassy phase of the body often makes distinction of individual grains difficult. Distinction: No other petrofabrics contain this much chert, the nearest in content being about 10% for the petrofabric tentatively attributed to Gurgan. Location: Kashan has by far the best credentials as a production centre in this period. Writing in about 1220, Yaqut describes the products of Kashan as being transported far and wide. A Lustre vessel of about the same date is inscribed as being made by Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Nishapuri while he was dwelling in Kashan; while an Ustad Jamal Naqqash inscribed tiles in 1337 with the information that he was working in Kashan. A number of other vessels are signed by people with a Kashani nisba (an element of the person's name which states their geographic origin), including Ali and Yusuf of the Abu Tahir family, who signed work from 1242 to 1265 and from 1305 to 1334, respectively; and Muhammad ibn Abi Mansur, who signed work in 1204. The exact relevance of the nisba in provenance attribution is debatable. Significantly, one of the few pieces inscribed with the straightforward attribution of production in Kashan is signed by Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Nishapuri. However, the large number of consistent associations, particularly with the entire Abu Tahir lineage, does lend it credence. Apart from the documentary evidence, Pope (1937) has published a number of wasters, predominantly Underglaze-painted wares of the "Pin-wheel" style, and Monochrome Plain, Moulded, and Carved wares. Bahrami (1938) also published what he considered to be "badly fired" Lustre bowls from the Kalahar district of Kashan, and kilns from the Malekabad district. Unfortunately, no actual wasters from Kashan have been sampled, so attribution to this site must be considered tentative. The strength of this attribution relies on the fact that the best documentary evidence for Lustre-painted wares exists for this site, and this fact correlates with the finding that Lustre-painted wares are always of a single petrofabric unless they are of Safavid date. Micrograph: Fig. 6.3. "MA‘ARRAT" PETROFABRIC (western Syria): 25 samples (Ma‘arrat al-Nu‘man [Bartels Gift] 22, unknown 3). Overview: A large group of stonepaste pottery including a significant proportion of wasters said to come from the region of Ma‘arrat al-Nu‘man. Apart from the waster group, a figural "line-back" style piece (ASH.35) and a turquoise and black "dash-back" piece (ASH.32) have been included in this group, while the waster group includes an atypical "arc-back" piece (MRT.29, see Chapter 5). Macroscopic paste description: White stonepaste body, moderately porous with clearly visible granularity. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Quartz grains comprise about 50% of the body, and consist of 3-15% clear, 15-30% slightly cloudy, 1-25% cloudy, up to 8% very cloudy grains, and also includes trace to 3% polycrystalline and 3-15% "sheared" quartz (although some of the latter is completely "sheared" and their clarity or cloudiness can not be ascertained). Quartz extinction is mostly undulose, while fluid inclusions are generally fine and in clouds although occasional very dense lamellar groups also are noted. Polycrystalline quartz is generally equally divided between equant and elongate crystallization, and there is occasional mica in these grains. Other inclusions comprise 1- 3% feldspars, roughly equally divided between untwinned feldspar and plagioclase, with sharp twin boundaries, plus trace microcline, all mostly brownish and cloudy; rare traces up to 1% brownish chert, rare traces of amphibole, and what appear to be traces of basalt. Grains moderately sorted and angular with calculated mode grainsize diameter of 0.025-0.05 mm with maximum of 0.7 mm. Distinction: The occasionally very high "sheared" quartz content is similar to the Raqqa-1 Petrofabric, but Raqqa-1 has predominantly clearer quartz and no feldspar. The Halabiya Petrofabric is very close to many samples of the Ma‘arrat group, differing significantly only in the lack or trace amount of feldspar. The Raqqa-2 group in many cases only differs in the finer grainsize and trace or absence of feldspars. Location: This petrofabric is defined by analysis of a group of wasters which are said to have come from Tell Minis, near Ma‘arrat al-Nu‘man, and were donated to the Ashmolean Museum in 1980 by Dr. H. Bartels. This is a dealer's attribution, and hence is suspect. As the group has subsequently been shown to differ from the "Tell Minis" Petrofabric as first defined (see below and Chapter 5), it was decided to name the petrofabric after the nearby large town. The relationship with attested Euphrates petrofabrics (Raqqa-2 and Halabiya) may even suggest a true origin in that area. Micrograph: Fig. 5.3. MASHHAD PETROFABRIC (northeastern Iran): 13 samples (Derbent 5, Konya Urgench 1, Kubachi 1, remainder unknown). Overview: Important production centre in the middle of the second half of the fifteenth century (Mason et al. 1996); no samples found of earlier date. Macroscopic paste description: Moderately porous white stonepaste body. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising angular predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body comprises over 60% quartz, including about 60% clear, 2-8% slightly cloudy, up to trace cloudy quartz, and with straight extinctions, well-sorted medium silt with maximum grainsize diameter of 0.30 mm. Distinction: The predominance of entirely clear quartz and lack of any other inclusion sets this apart from most other petrofabrics. It contains a higher proportion of clear quartz than Rayy, and could be confused only with the products of Damascus, which invariably also contain rounded grains. Location: Defined by analysis of two fifteenth-century pieces with locations of manufacture inscribed upon them (Mason 1996). Micrograph: Mason 1996, fig. 3.4. MAYBUD PETROFABRIC (central western Iran): 1 sample (Maybud 1 ). Overview: Possibly the last surviving stonepaste ceramic production centre in Iran. Does not seem to be represented in any earlier pottery. Macroscopic paste description: Porous white stonepaste. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising angular predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body includes about 45% quartz, which comprises approximately 5% clear, 10% slightly cloudy, 20% cloudy, 10% very cloudy grains, and includes 1% polycrystalline and 10% "sheared." Other inclusions comprise 3% chert and 2% feldspar. Coarse silt grade with maximum grainsize diameter of 0.50 mm. Distinction: Only close parallel is the Gurgan(?) Petrofabric, which lacks the large population of very cloudy quartz and contains less feldspar. Location: Sample taken from ornament purchased by Michael Roaf at Maybud. Micrograph: None. NISHAPUR PETROFABRIC (northeastern Iran): 44 samples (Nishapur 7, Konya Urgench 2, Sistan sites 6, Derbent 2, Samarqand 1, remainder unknown). Overview: Very important production centre during second half of fifteenth and first half of sixteenth century (Mason et al. 1996). Important production centre during twelfth and early thirteenth centuries (Wilkinson 1973; see Chapter 6), but pottery of this period has not been made available for analysis. Macroscopic paste description: Moderately porous white stonepaste body. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising angular predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body includes about 50% quartz, which comprises 10-20% clear, 20-40 slightly cloudy, 2-10% cloudy, 0-5% very cloudy quartz, and including 1-4% polycrystalline and 0-3% "sheared" quartz, with strongly undulose or straight extinction. Other inclusions comprise trace to 2% clear untwinned feldspar, trace to 1% clear plagioclase with sharp twin boundaries and zoning, up to trace clear microcline, and up to 4% volcanics. There are two grainsize profiles, the numerically predominant one of medium silt, and a less common variant with fine silt-grade inclusions; both have a maximum grainsize diameter of 0.4 mm. Distinction: The closest to this petrofabric is the fifteenth- century Samarqand Petrofabric, but the Nishapur Petrofabric is generally cloudier, with a distinctly higher population of polycrystalline quartz and generally less "sheared" quartz. Further, the Samarqand pottery generally contains subrounded grains among the largest grainsizes (about 0.5 mm) and the feldspar is commonly cloudy, whereas the Nishapur pottery lacks rounded grains and the feldspars are generally clear and include microcline and zoned plagioclase. Location: Definition of the Nishapur Petrofabric by the analysis of late fifteenth century wasters (Mason 1996). Micrograph: Mason 1996, fig. 3.8. NISHAPUR CLAY PETROFABRIC (northeastern Iran): 5 samples (Nishapur 2, remainder unknown). Overview: An important production centre for lead-glazed wares in the ninth and tenth centuries, this petrofabric is defined by analysis of pottery of the fifteenth century. Sampled pieces of unknown origin but of typical Nishapur style include Monochrome Slip-painted wares and an example of "yellow- field" ware. Macroscopic paste description: Dense, hard red clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, containing 4-7% quartz commonly in bimodal distribution, with about 4% fine subangular to subrounded quartz with mode grainsize diameter of 0.02mm and maximum of 0.05 mm plus about 2% coarse well-rounded to rounded quartz with mode grainsize diameter of 0.18 mm and maximum of 0.35 mm, both clear to slightly cloudy, with straight to strongly undulose extinctions, and very well sorted; 3-5% plagioclase feldspar, mostly clear with sharp or fuzzy twin boundaries, angular to subangular grains with mode grainsize diameter of 0.09 mm and maximum of 0.35 mm; 1-6% basic volcanics, commonly fine plagioclase laths (9×70 ) with intergranular opaque and clinopyroxene, often in large angular grains up to 0.6 mm; trace to 4% felsic volcanics, commonly cherty texture with feldspar phenocrysts; trace to 4% opaque; 1-3% untwinned feldspar of same granulometry as fine quartz; trace to 3% amphibole, granulometry as fine quartz; 1-2% clinopyroxene, granulometry as plagioclase; trace to 1% biotite, up to 2% carbonate; and up to trace muscovite. Distinction: Comparable only to Sirjan Petrofabric, which differs in specific minerals and nature of volcanics, and appears to represent a single immature sand source whereas Nishapur looks like a mix of several sources with large angular volcanic fragments. Location: Defined by analysis of fifteenth-century clay-bodied wasters from Nishapur, collected by Charles Wilkinson And stored in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Micrograph: Fig. 6.1; see also Mason 1996, fig. 3.15. QAYSARIYYA PETROFABRIC (Israel/Palestine): 8 samples (Qaysariyya [Caesarea] 8). Overview: Production of Byzantine/early Islamic unglazed pottery and moulded lamps at important port site. Macroscopic paste description: Not examined, but thin- section indicates fired-clay body, probably pink-buff, with visible sand grains and, in Byzantine period, visible angular limestone fragments. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix with rounded inclusions of quartz, feldspars, and fine micritic limestone with gastropod fossils, found in large angular fragments in the Byzantine samples and in trace amounts in the early Islamic samples. Distinction: The petrofabrics of these samples show considerable variation, but indicate utilization of the same raw materials. Similar to the Serce Liman and eleventh century Qaysariyya samples, this consists of rounded sand and carbonates. However, the rounded sand includes grains of feldspars, which are not found in the Serce Liman group, and usually lack chert, while the grainsize distribution also differs. The carbonate also differs, being fine micritic limestone with small gastropod fossils. Location: Evidence of production at Qaysariyya consists of a Byzantine unglazed moulded lamp of a type known to be manufactured at Qaysariyya because of the presence of moulds on the site, a contemporary bowl, and wasters of early Islamic unglazed moulded lamps (see Mason in press a). Micrograph: Mason in press a. RAQQA-1 PETROFABRIC (eastern Syria?): 4 samples (Ma‘arrat al-Nu‘man [Bartels Gift] 2, "Raqqa" attributed by dealer 2). Overview: Although formerly considered to be the bona fideRaqqa Petrofabric from analysis of wasters attributed to Raqqa by a dealer (Mason 1994), this group is not part of the genuine Raqqa Petrofabric (Raqqa-2) defined by subsequent analysis of wasters excavated at the site. Sampled wares include Lustre- wares of Syrian Groups Two and Seven with Underglaze- painted wares of Group Six. Macroscopic paste description: White stonepaste, moderately porous, with granularity visible. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body contains about 50% quartz, consisting of about 20% clear quartz, 10-15% slightly cloudy quartz, 3-4% cloudy quartz, rare traces of very cloudy quartz, and also includes up to 2% polycrystalline and 20-25% "sheared" quartz (some "sheared" grains are so heavily damaged that it is impossible to determine how cloudy they were). "Shearing" in the case of this group is clearly associated with optical discontinuities across "sheared" zones, forming in some cases a mylonite mosaic. Quartz grains show a range of extinction from straight to strongly undulose. Fluid inclusions form fine patches and broad bands. Grains are angular and moderately sorted with a grainsize diameter mode of 0.0125-0.025 mm (calculated) with maximum grainsize of 0.6 mm. Distinction: This petrofabric is characterized by a predominance of clear quartz, although with significant slightly cloudy quartz, and by a very high content of "sheared" quartz. It is not very different from some "Ma‘arrat" Petrofabric examples, which also contain feldspar (absent in Raqqa-1), and are consistently coarser. Location: This petrofabric was first defined by analysis of a group of vessels in the ROM, including wasters, said to be from Raqqa. Because this material was bought from a dealer, the attribution had always been suspect (Mason 1994). Analysis of wasters from Raqqa obtained through reliable means has revealed a completely different petrofabric. It remains to be seen whether the Raqqa-1 Petrofabric pieces are anomalies from Raqqa, which is unlikely given the range of material now sampled from excavations at the site, or are from a completely different site, the location of which was obscured by or unknown to the dealer. Micrograph: Fig. 5.2. RAQQA-2 PETROFABRIC (eastern Syria): 18 samples (Raqqa 10, Abu Sudeirah 4, unknown 4). Overview: Although there are two petrofabrics with the Raqqa name, this one, formerly known as the "Raqqa-style" Petrofabric (Mason 1994), is now the only one positively associated with the site. Raqqa has what probably remains the foremost reputation among Ayyubid-period Syrian stonepaste wares, with most types having had at some time the classification of "Raqqa-ware." The site is less important than may have been thought at one time, but remains significant. Included in the sampled group are Lustre-wares of Syrian Groups Four and Seven and Underglaze-painted wares of Group Five. Macroscopic paste description: White stonepaste, moderately porous, with granularity visible. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body of angular predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Consists of about 50% quartz comprising 3-8% clear, 10-20% slightly cloudy, 10-30% cloudy, 3-10% very cloudy, including trace to 4% polycrystalline, trace to 10% "sheared"; predominantly undulose with some strongly undulose and straight extinctions; with occasional trace feldspar, rare trace chert, and rare carbonate; all in well-sorted angular grains with calculated mode diameter of 0.02 mm and maximum of 0.4 mm Distinction: Generally this group consists predominantly of slightly cloudy to cloudy quartz, often with significant very cloudy quartz, and some polycrystalline and "sheared" quartz, in a fine grainsize distribution. In many respects this is not too dissimilar from the "Ma‘arrat" Petrofabric, although the generally coarser grainsize, the presence of feldspar, and the generally relatively clearer quartz "Ma‘arrat" distinguishes it. The Halabiya wasters are even closer, in some cases being distinguishable by the coarser grainsize of the Halabiya samples. Location: Pottery from recent excavations at Raqqa, including wasters (see Appendices A and C), are included in the samples. Micrograph: Fig. 5.3. RAYY PETROFABRIC (north-central Iran): 2 samples (Rayy 2). Overview: Important site with long-established reputation in academic community for production of pottery, especially unsubstantiated production of Lustre-wares. No Lustre-wares are found with this petrofabric, and wares at Rayy of even lesser quality are predominantly of the Kashan(?) Petrofabric. Macroscopic paste description: Moderately porous granular white stonepaste. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising angular predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body includes about 55% quartz, consisting of 40% clear quartz, about 15% slightly cloudy, about 2% cloudy quartz, and including about 1% of polycrystalline and about 3-5% "sheared" quartz; straight to undulose extinctions; well-sorted including rounded and angular grains with mode diameter of 0.1 mm and maximum of 0.7 mm. The largest grains are of rounded quartz, often with carbonate adhered to the surface, suggesting that the source of quartz was a sandstone cemented with carbonate. Such a sandstone would be consistent with the descriptions of a quartz source in the area being from a quarry (see Chapter 2), rather than having been collected as cobbles from streambeds, which appears to be more common in Iran. Distinction: The clarity of the quartz would make it comparable only to Damascus, which includes a much larger proportion of rounded grains of a finer grainsize, and the fifteenth-century Mashhad Petrofabric, which is composed entirely of angular grains. Location: Defined by analysis of a waster from excavations at the site. Micrograph: Fig. 6.4. RAYY CLAY PETROFABRIC (north-central Iran): 1 sample (Rayy 1). Overview: Important site with known ceramic production, description based on analysis of single item of tripod kiln furniture. Future work will incorporate a greater examination of clay-bodied pottery from the site to determine which types were produced there. Macroscopic paste description: Buff-brown dense clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix with about 5% quartz, clear to slightly cloudy, with trace equant polycrystalline grains; straight to undulose extinctions; also includes 3% felsic volcanics, mostly cherty textures with quartz phenocrysts and some glassy textures; 2% haematized brown platy argillite fragments; 2% opaque; 2% opaque brown biotite; 1% plagioclase, mostly clear with sharp or fuzzy twin boundaries; and trace amounts of clinopyroxene and epidote; all moderately sorted subrounded to subangular, mode grainsize diameter of 0.02 mm and maximum of 0.1 mm. Distinction: Appears to be the only petrofabric defined to date with such high content of felsic volcanic with no basalt presence at all. Location: Defined by analysis of a single example of tripod kiln furniture. Micrograph: None. "RAYY 3" PETROFABRIC (Iran): 9 samples (Rayy 1, Ani 1, Samarqand 1, remainder unknown). Overview: Very important production centre, seemingly the most important after Kashan in Iran during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Samples include most of the fine Underglaze-painted wares sampled, a Monochrome "fenestrated" bowl, and an example of the important Underglaze-painted and Slip-painted "Sultanabad" style. Macroscopic paste description: Fine dense white stonepaste. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body contains about 50-60% quartz, including about 5-15% clear, 20-30% slightly cloudy, 5-15% cloudy, up to 5% very cloudy quartz, and includes up to 2% polycrystalline; largely straight with some undulose extinctions. Other inclusions comprise up to 1% feldspars and rare trace chert. Very well sorted angular grains with mode grainsize diameter of 0.015 mm and normally with a maximum of 0.1 mm, although rarely up to 0.25 mm in some examples. Distinction: The grainsize certainly distinguishes this as a group, but the mineralogy relies on the absence of chert to distinguish it from Gurgan(?) and the very low presence of feldspars to distinguish it from certain other Iranian-region petrofabrics such as Nishapur and Samarqand. The distinctly Iranian typology of this group makes distinction with the Syrian bodies unnecessary, but the only petrofabric similarly low in non-quartz inclusions is Raqqa-2, which has distinctly cloudier quartz and also has significant "sheared" quartz. Location: The typology of this group is distinctly Iranian, but no suggestion of a specific site of production may be made as yet. Micrograph: Fig. 6.4. "RAYY 4" PETROFABRIC (Iran?): 1 sample (Rayy 1). Overview: Single Monochrome-glazed stonepaste sherd from Rayy. Macroscopic paste description: White granular stonepaste. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body contains about 50% quartz, which comprises 5% slightly cloudy, 30% cloudy, 15% very cloudy, and including 40% equant polycrystalline and 2% "sheared." Other inclusions comprise 10% chert or cryptocrystalline quartz; 2% cloudy untwinned feldspar and trace amphibole. Grains subangular to angular with a mode grainsize diameter of 0.035 mm and maximum of 0.5 mm. Distinction: Highly distinctive petrofabric almost entirely composed of polycrystalline and cryptocrystalline (chert) quartz, only possibly related to the "Indian Ocean" Petrofabric of Mason 1996. Location: Appears to be an Iranian style of ware. Micrograph: None. SAMARQAND(?) STONEPASTE PETROFABRIC(central Asia): 34 samples (Samarqand 15, Kunya Urgench 4, Sirjan 2, Kilwa 1, remainder unknown). Overview: Key production centre of early fifteenth century (Mason 1996, Mason et al. 1996). Macroscopic paste description: Moderately porous granular white stonepaste body. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body contains about 50% quartz, comprising 10-20% clear, 20-25% slightly cloudy, 2-10% cloudy, up to 5% very cloudy quartz, and including trace to 3% polycrystalline and trace to 10% "sheared" quartz; mostly straight with some undulose and occasional strongly undulose extinctions. Other inclusions comprise 1-2% cloudy untwinned feldspar, trace cloudy plagioclase with sharp twin boundaries, up to trace microcline, up to 2% amphibole, and rare traces of carbonate. The Samarqand wares are represented by two main grainsize profiles, a fine one with mode grainsize diameter of about 0.02 mm and maximum of 0.2 mm, and a coarser profile with mode grainsize diameter of 0.04 mm and maximum of 0.7 mm. The finer wares are distinguished by having a tin-opacified glaze (see Mason 1996). The coarsest grains of the coarser wares are generally subrounded, and the source of raw material is probably a sand. Distinction: The closest to this petrofabric is the fifteenth- century Nishapur Petrofabric, but the Nishapur Petrofabric is generally cloudier, with a distinctly higher population of polycrystalline quartz and generally less "sheared" quartz. Further, the Samarqand pottery generally contains subrounded grains among the largest grainsizes (about 0.5 mm in diameter) and the feldspar is commonly cloudy, while the Nishapur pottery lacks rounded grains and the feldspars are generally clear and include microcline and zoned plagioclase. Location: Samarqand has the best, possibly the only, credentials for the production of pottery in the early years of the fifteenth century because Timur established the industry there and destroyed all competitors. Analysis of pottery of this period at Samarqand has produced only one stonepaste petrofabric. Micrograph: Mason 1996, fig. 3.4. SAMARQAND(?) CLAY PETROFABRIC (central Asia): 19 samples (Samarqand 17, Tashkent 1, remainder unknown). Overview: This site is considered to have been an extremely important site for the production of clay-bodied, Lead-glazed wares and particularly for those with fine slip-painted decoration in the ninth and tenth centuries. The petrofabric reported here is defined by analysis of a group of fifteenth- century clay-bodied wares thought to have been made in Samarqand (Mason 1996), but an example of the Samarqand Slip-painted ware has also been included. Macroscopic paste description: Fine dense pink or pinky-buff body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with a bimodal grainsize distribution of aplastics. The coarser population collectively comprises about 1% of subangular plagioclase, untwinned feldspar, cherty volcanics, and quartz, all between about 0.2 and 0.5 mm in diameter. The fine population comprises very well sorted subrounded to subangular grains with mode grainsize diameter of 0.026 mm and maximum of 0.1 mm, consisting of about 5-17% quartz, clear to cloudy, with trace polycrystalline, straight to strongly undulose extinctions; 2-7% clear untwinned feldspar; trace to 4% clear plagioclase; 3-5% amphibole; occasional trace clinopyroxene; trace to 3% biotite; up to 6% carbonate; up to 2% muscovite; 1-3% opaques; and up to 1% metamorphic schists. The occasional occurrence of polyminerallic quartz-feldspar- amphibole grains suggests granitic origins for much of the mineral inclusions. Distinction: The Samarqand Clay Petrofabric has a wide diversity of inclusions and a predominantly fine grainsize, a typical occurrence in large river basins such as this and also in the Tigris-Euphrates and Nile basins. The complete absence of basalt alone distinguishes this group from relevant petrofabrics (Nishapur, Sirjan, etc.), but there are also other differences in mineral abundance and grainsize. Location: This petrofabric is defined by analysis of a large corpus of clay-bodied wares considered to have been made in Samarqand in the fifteenth century (Mason 1996). As no wasters are included, attribution to Samarqand remains tentative, although reasonably confident. Micrograph: Fig. 6.1. "SAMARRA 2" PETROFABRIC (central? Iraq: Baghdad?): 10 samples (Samarra' 2, Siraf 4, Hira 2, Nippur 2). Overview: Important ninth to tenth century central Iraqi centre, tentatively attributed to Baghdad, producing Splashed Lead- glazed wares, Plain Lead-glazed wares, Turquoise-glazed wares, and Plain Opaque-glazed wares. Macroscopic paste description: Fired-clay body, but unusually dense and well vitrified (due to glass inclusions). Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 3-7% quartz, mostly clear to slightly cloudy, undulose to strongly undulose extinction, some equant polycrystalline; trace to 2% plagioclase, including clear or cloudy grains with sharp or fuzzy twin boundaries; trace to 3% untwinned feldspar, mostly cloudy; 1-2% opaque; trace to 2% amphibole; 1-2% felsic volcanics including glassy, cherty, and trachytic textures; up to 2% basalt including fine plagioclase laths in opaque, and coarse plagioclase laths (0.1 × 0.5 mm) with intersertal opaque and quartz; up to 2% biotite; up to 2% fine brown argillite; up to 2% metamorphic including biotite-quartz and quartz-biotite- chlorite schists; up to 1% clinopyroxene; up to 2% anthropogenic glass; rarely up to 1% microcline; and up to trace amounts of muscovite, epidote, and chert. All grains are subrounded to subangular, moderately sorted, with a mode grainsize diameter of 0.035 mm and a maximum of 0.2 mm. The glass identified here as anthropogenic has not been analysed in all cases and may be confused with volcanogenic glass. Microprobe analysis of some of these inclusions (see Chapter 3) has revealed them to be a lead-alkali glass, probably added to aid vitrification of the body. Distinction: Related to other Tigris-Euphrates petrofabrics but coarser and with higher content of ferromagnesian minerals and volcanic rock fragments than most, but lower than "Samarra 3." Location: Inclusions are typical of Tigris-Euphrates deposits, but finer and containing lesser amounts of ferromagnesian minerals than petrofabrics from upstream (e.g., "Tell-Aswad" groups); in turn, they are coarser and contain more ferromagnesian inclusions than petrofabrics from downstream (e.g., Basra and affines). Hence, a central Iraqi position is most likely with Baghdad being a specific but tentative attribution, given the documentary evidence of a production centre at this site. Micrograph: Fig. 3.13. Note: previously published as "Abbasid B" of Mason and Keall 1988a and "Siraf 8" of Mason and Keall 1991. "SAMARRA 3" PETROFABRIC (central or north-central Iraq): 8 samples (Samarra' 3, Susa 1, Hira 3, Fustat 1). Overview: Important ninth to tenth century central or north- central Iraqi centre, tentatively attributed to Samarra, itself, producing Splashed Lead-glazed wares, Plain Lead-glazed wares, and Turquoise-glazed wares. Macroscopic paste description: Dense red fired-clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 2-7% quartz in bimodal distribution with, in greatest abundance about 6% fine quartz, mostly clear with straight extinctions, well sorted rounded to subrounded grains between 0.02 and 0.1 mm in diameter, plus about 1% coarse quartz, mostly clear to slightly cloudy, straight extinctions, well-sorted rounded to subrounded grains between 0.14 mm and 0.26 mm in diameter; up to 5% carbonate, micritic where preserved but mostly destroyed, poorly sorted well-rounded to angular grains with minimum diameter of 0.05 mm; 1-4% amphibole; 2-3% biotite; 1-3% untwinned feldspar, mostly of same granulometry as fine quartz; 1-3% opaque; 1-3% plagioclase, with, in greatest abundance, about 2% as fine quartz, clear to cloudy and sharp or fuzzy twin boundaries, plus 1% as coarse quartz, mostly cloudy with fuzzy twin boundaries; trace to 3% felsic volcanic, including trachytic texture, cherty with feldspar phenocrysts, and volcanogenic glass; up to 3% muscovite; up to 2% clinopyroxene, including colourless and pale green examples; up to 2% basalt plagioclase laths (0.05 × 0.18 mm) with intergranular opaques; up to 1% microcline feldspar; up to 1% biotite-quartz schist; occasional trace chert. Distinction: The large amount of coarse amphibole is particularly distinctive, as is the presence of carbonate, which distinguishes this from most other Tigris-Euphrates deposits. Some samples of "Samarra 2" Petrofabric approach the level of ferromagnesian mineral content, so it is possible that there is some relationship. Location: As with "Samarra 2" the inclusions are typical of Tigris-Euphrates deposits, but they are finer and contain fewer ferromagnesian minerals than petrofabrics from upstream (e.g., "Tell-Aswad" groups), while in turn they are coarser and contain more ferromagnesian inclusions than petrofabrics from downstream (e.g., Basra and affines). This petrofabric is coarser and generally contains more ferromagnesian minerals than "Samarra 2"; a slightly more upstream position, possibly even Samarra itself, is therefore likely. Micrograph: Fig. 3.14. Note: Previously published as "Abbasid C" of Mason and Keall 1988a. "SEMI-GLAZED" PETROFABRIC (Egypt, possibly Fustat): 2 samples (Fustat 2). Overview: Possibly important seventh to eighth century production in Egypt. Macroscopic paste description: Dense pink-buff to buff fired- clay body with clearly visible dark basalt inclusions. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with up to 7% quartz in bimodal distribution, comprising at greatest abundance 4% coarse quartz of well-rounded to rounded grains with a mode grainsize diameter of 0.2 mm and maximum of 1.0 mm, and 3% fine quartz, subangular to subrounded grains, mode grainsize diameter of 0.05 mm and maximum of 0.2 mm, both clear to slightly cloudy, with undulose to strongly undulose extinctions and very well sorted; also 1-4% plagioclase comprising at greatest abundance about 3% with granulometry as fine quartz, and 1% cloudy grains with fuzzy twin boundaries, granulometry as coarse quartz; 3% opaque; 2-3% basalt, predominantly fine plagioclase laths (26 × 90 ) sparsely ophitic in clinopyroxene, plus fine plagioclase laths with interstitial glass or opaques; 2% clinopyroxene; 1-2% fissile brown argillite between 0.2 mm and 2.0 mm in diameter; 1% felsic volcanics of cherty texture with feldspar phenocrysts; trace to 1% each of amphibole, biotite, and untwinned feldspar; occasional trace microcline. Distinction: Although the general proportions of volcanics and ferromagnesian minerals are not far removed from extreme Nile examples, the exact nature of the inclusions is significantly different. Felsic volcanics are occasionally found as trace amounts in the other Egyptian petrofabrics, but never in this abundance while the type of most common basalt in this petrofabric is not found in Nile Petrofabric or those derivative of it. Location: The abundance of strange volcanics would argue for influence from a more volcanic terrain, such as the Eastern Desert, by location of the pottery manufactory either there, or near deposits derived from this region. As there is evidence that certain later ceramic types were made in Fustat, and that the petrofabrics of these types are considerably different from the "Semi-glazed ware" Petrofabric, then it may be interpreted that either Semi-glazed ware was not produced in Fustat, or that the potters were utilizing a clay source not used subsequently. Whitcomb (1989) has suggested that this ware was made at Alexandria, but this would not explain the observed petrofabric in that it must be assumed that only deltaic deposits of Nile alluvium would have been available here. Micrograph: Fig. 4.1. "SHIPWRECK" PETROFABRIC (Palestine?): 5 samples (Serce Liman 2, Qaysariyya [Caesarea] 2, Jerusalem 1). Overview: Group of samples examined to investigate origins of glazed wares found in shipwreck at Serce Liman. Probably minor production centre in Palestine, conceivably Qaysariyya itself. Macroscopic paste description: Hard dense red fired-clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 10-15% of rounded fine quartz sand, 5-7% of subangular carbonates, 3- 4% of opaques, and 1-2% chert. The internal structure of the carbonate is often destroyed by the firing, but for the most part it is probably a finely crystalline limestone. Traces of mollusc shell can also be identified, including gastropoda and bivalvia up to 0.5 mm in diameter. An unusual feature of this pottery is the slip, which is usually less than 0.1 mm thick and is composed of a light-coloured clay, with inclusions of rounded quartz and chert actually larger than the thickness of the slip. Distinction: Similar to the Qaysariyya Petrofabric which also consists of rounded sand and carbonates. However, the rounded sand includes grains of feldspars, which are not found in the glazed group, and usually lack chert, while the grainsize distribution also differs. The carbonate also differs, being fine micritic limestone with small gastropod fossils, and is present as large angular grains in the Byzantine samples, and in trace amounts in the early Islamic samples. Hence, although the petrofabrics appear superficially similar it cannot be accepted that these are the same raw materials used for the eleventh- century pottery. Also superficially similar to "Hafsid" and Fustat(?) "High-Ca" Petrofabrics. Location: Evidence of ceramic manufacture exists for Qaysariyya, but it is considerably earlier than the glazed wares we are concerned with, being Byzantine and Early Islamic (seventh to ninth centuries). The petrofabrics of these early samples show considerable variation, but indicate utilization of the same raw materials. Similar to the Serce Liman and eleventh-century Qaysariyya samples, this earlier petrofabric consists of rounded sand and carbonates, yet is distinguishable from it (see above). However, given the similarities, and given the terrestrial distribution focus for the glazed wares in Qaysariyya and Jerusalem, a provenance in this region for the group seems tenable. Micrograph: Fig. 5.1. SIRAF PETROFABRIC (Gulf coast of Iran): 4 samples (Siraf 4 ). Overview: Minor production of unglazed and Lead-glazed wares at very important port site. Macroscopic paste description: Buff porous clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with large (diameter up to about 1 mm) subrounded elongate inclusions of a dark brown, almost opaque, fissile argillaceous inclusion, probably a weakly indurated shale. This petrofabric also contains carbonate, a fine micritic material probably representing limestone fragments, and fine inclusions of quartz and other minerals. Distinction: Similar to some other petrofabrics identified at Siraf, which, however, tend to have different types of argillite or lack carbonate. Location: The Siraf Petrofabric itself is linked to production at Siraf by analysis of unglazed wasters from the site. Micrograph: Fig. 6.2. "SIRAF 2" PETROFABRIC (Iraq): 5 samples (Siraf 5). Overview: Minor production centre in Basra region producing Turquoise-glazed Hib-type jars. Macroscopic paste description: Fine buff fired-clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 3-6% bimodal quartz comprising, in greatest abundance, 4% fine very well sorted subangular to subrounded quartz with mode grainsize diameter of 0.02 mm and maximum of 0.05 mm and coarse very well sorted, well-rounded quartz grains with mode diameter of 0.35 mm and maximum of 0.7 mm, both clear to slightly cloudy, strongly undulose to undulose extinction; 1- 2% untwinned cloudy feldspars divided equally between coarse and fine quartz; 1% plagioclase comprising cloudy and clear grains with fuzzy or sharp twin boundaries, granulometry as fine quartz; 1% opaque; 1% biotite; 1% fine brown fissile argillite; occasional trace amounts of amphibole, basaltic and felsic volcanics, clinopyroxene, muscovite, epidote, and what may be a fine biotite schist. This last inclusion is represented by fine, polyminerallic, highly haematized platy fragments with quartz and/or feldspars. Given the fineness, other identifications may be possible, such as highly fragmentary haematized basalt. Distinction: The description is similar to Basra in its abundance and grainsize distribution of most minerals, including a coarse population of rounded quartz sand, but generally this petrofabric has a distinctly higher abundance of ferromagnesian minerals such as biotite, it contains volcanic rock, and it has a higher relative abundance of fine quartz. Location: Given the similarities to Basra, it is possible that this represents a distinct workshop in Basra, or, more likely, that it is from another centre in the region further upstream and receiving more silt from the Tigris and Euphrates. Micrograph: Fig. 3.2. "SIRAF 3" PETROFABRIC (Iraq): 2 samples (Siraf 2). Overview: Minor production centre in Basra region producing Turquoise-glazed Hib-type jars. Macroscopic paste description: Fine buff fired-clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with about 2-3% quartz; about 1% biotite; about 1% biotite-quartz schist; about 1% fine platy brown inclusions possibly including biotite, oxidized amphibole, and fine brown argillite; up to 1% untwinned feldspars, trace plagioclase feldspar; all with mode grainsize diameter of 0.02 mm and maximum of 0.05 mm Distinction: Resembles the fine grain population of Basra and "Siraf 2," but totally lacks the coarse rounded grains, and also differs in abundance, being high in platy ferromagnesian inclusions but lacking other ferromagnesians. Location: Possibly a variant of Basra or "Siraf 2." Micrograph: Fig. 3.2. "SIRAF 4" PETROFABRIC (Iraq): 1 sample (Siraf 1). Overview: Minor ninth-century south Iraqi centre producing Turquoise-glazed wares. Macroscopic paste description: Fine buff fired-clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with about 5% quartz in a trimodal grainsize distribution, with about 2% fine angular quartz, clear with equant polycrystalline, straight to strongly undulose extinction, well sorted with mode grainsize diameter of 0.14 mm and maximum of 0.2 mm; 2% coarser well-sorted, well-rounded to rounded quartz, of same general properties, with mode grainsize diameter of 0.35 mm and maximum of 0.6 mm, and 2% very fine quartz of same properties but grainsize diameter less than 0.017 mm; 2% felsic volcanics of fine trachytic and cherty textures, some with quartz phenocrysts, of same granulometry as fine and coarse quartz, mostly latter; 1% biotite with grainsize as fine quartz; 1% biotite-quartz schist, grainsize as fine quartz; 1% very fine brown argillite, grainsize as very fine quartz; 1% clear plagioclase, grainsize as fine quartz; 1% untwinned feldspar divided between fine and coarse quartz; trace opaque as very fine quartz; trace microcline, muscovite, clinopyroxene, and amphibole as fine quartz. Distinction: The relatively high content of felsic volcanics and biotite schist distinguishes this from the similar petrofabrics; it is represented by only a single Turquoise-glazed piece from Siraf, so it may be an anomaly of some other south Iraqi petrofabrics. Location: Among the group of petrofabrics attributed to south Iraq (see text), possibly a variant of Basra, "Siraf 2" or "Siraf 3." "SIRAF 7" PETROFABRIC (Iraq): 4 samples (Siraf 4). Overview: Minor ninth-century south Iraqi centre producing Turquoise-glazed wares. Macroscopic paste description: Fine buff fired-clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 8-10% quartz, mostly clear to slightly cloudy with straight to undulose extinction; 1-2% untwinned feldspar; 1-2% biotite; trace to 2% of felsic volcanics including glassy and cherty textures; about 1% opaque; trace to 1% plagioclase; up to 1% each of amphibole, fine brown fissile argillite, and clinopyroxene; occasional trace amounts of epidote, chert, and basaltic volcanic. All moderately sorted, subrounded to subangular, mode grainsize diameter of 0.035 mm and maximum of 0.14 mm. Although coarser rounded grains are not found in the body, they do appear in the glaze, and comprise quartz, slightly cloudy to clear, undulose to strongly undulose extinction; plus cloudy untwinned feldspar and plagioclase; all very well sorted, well-rounded to rounded, mode grainsize diameter 0.09 mm and maximum 0.35 mm. Distinction: Similar in mineralogy to Basra and affines but distinctly coarser, yet finer and containing less ferromagnesian minerals than other Iraqi petrofabrics ("Samarra 2," "Samarra 3"). Location: Although solely represented by pottery from Siraf, this petrofabric is sufficiently similar to the Basra affines to suggest a southern Iraqi origin. The coarser grainsize does not rule out an origin in the Basra region, but the other Iraqi petrofabrics seem to fit a model of increasing grainsize further upstream (excluding aeolian grains), which suggests that a region further into the Sawad is likely. Micrograph: Mason and Keall 1991, fig. 4. "SIRAF 10" PETROFABRIC (Gulf coast of Iran): 1 sample (Siraf 1). Overview: Single glazed-ware sample from Siraf which appears to be alkali in section with large bubbles and abundant quartz inclusions. Macroscopic paste description: Pink-buff fine fired-clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 5% of an opaque fissile shale, 2% quartz, 1% untwinned feldspar, and trace amounts of plagioclase, amphibole, biotite, muscovite, and opaques; mode grainsize diameter c. 0.04 mm, maximum 0.5 mm. Distinction: This petrofabric has the same shale as Siraf but lacks carbonate. Location: Appears to be related to the Siraf Petrofabric, but the characteristics of these petrofabrics may cover a significant part of the region. Micrograph: Mason and Keall 1991, fig. 6. "SIRAF 11" PETROFABRIC (Gulf coast of Iran): 1 sample (Siraf 1). Overview: Single glazed-ware sample from Siraf which is assumed to be Lead-glazed. Macroscopic paste description: Pink-buff fine fired-clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 8% brown argillite which contains silty quartz grains, subrounded between 0.05 mm and 1.0 mm in diameter; 3% quartz with mode diameter of 0.01 mm and maximum of 0.05 mm; 3% sparry and micritic carbonates, subangular to subrounded, between 0.035 mm and 0.2 mm in diameter; 1% each of amphibole, biotite, and opaques; trace untwinned feldspar and muscovite; all granulometry as quartz. Distinction: Related to other shaly petrofabrics from Siraf, but this one characterized by silt argillite. Location: Appears to be related to the Siraf Petrofabric, but these characteristics may cover a significant part of this region. Micrograph: Mason and Keall 1991, fig. 6. "SIRAF 13" PETROFABRIC (Gulf coast of Iran): 1 sample (Siraf 1). Overview: Single glazed-ware sample from Siraf which is assumed to be Lead-glazed. Macroscopic paste description: Pink-buff fine fired-clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 3% micritic carbonate, including shell fragments, grains subrounded to subangular, mode diameter of 0.04 mm and maximum of 0.18 mm; 3% quartz, clear to cloudy, straight extinction, grains well sorted, subrounded to subangular, with mode diameter of 0.02 mm and maximum of 0.07 mm; trace amounts of amphibole, biotite, and opaques of same granulometry as quartz. Distinction: Similar to other carbonate-bearing petrofabrics from Siraf but lacking argillite. Location: Appears to be related to the Siraf Petrofabric, but characteristics may cover a significant part of this region. Micrograph: Mason and Keall 1991, fig. 7. "SIRAF 14" PETROFABRIC (Gulf coast of Iran): 1 sample (Siraf 1). Overview: Single glazed-ware sample from Siraf which is assumed to be Lead-glazed. Macroscopic paste description: Pink-buff fine fired-clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 1% very fine quartz entirely less than 0.05 mm in diameter. Distinction: Very fine body could only be confused with some Basra examples. Location: Although it is conceivable that this represents a levigated fabric, such practices are largely unknown for Islamic glazed ware, suggesting that this petrofabric does indeed represent the available raw materials in the region where it was produced. It might be from the sediment-depleted Basra region, or, perhaps more likely, from the Gulf coast of Iran. Micrograph: Mason and Keall 1991, fig. 7. "SIRAF 15" PETROFABRIC (Iran? Iraq?): 1 sample (Siraf 1). Overview: Single lead-glazed ware with green splashes from Siraf. Macroscopic paste description: Porous red clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix with 12% carbonate, including sparry and micritic with some cleavage rhombs, well-sorted, rounded to subrounded, with mode diameter of 0.035 mm and maximum of 0.1 mm; 5% biotite; 4% quartz, mostly slightly cloudy with some clear, mostly undulose with some straight and strongly undulose extinctions, grains moderatly sorted, angular to subangular, with mode diameter of 0.02 mm and maximum of 0.2 mm; 2% clear untwinned feldspar, granulometry as quartz; 2% chert, colourless; 2% muscovite, including some with very weak brown pleochroism, probably more properly included under biotite, granulometry as quartz; 1% amphibole, pleochroic from very pale green to oxidized red, granulometry as quartz; 1% of a possibly anthropogenic glass; trace clinopyroxene, clear microcline, basalt of plagioclase laths (10 × 100 ) in glass, biotite-quartz and quartz-biotite schists, and a fine biotite-quartz argillite. The sample has a white slip of crushed quartz. Distinction: Similar to some Iraqi petrofabrics but significantly higher in carbonate, while very high mica content is also unusual. Location: Found in Siraf but is probably too varied to be from this region. Micrograph: Fig. 6.2. SIRJAN PETROFABRIC (south central Iran): 14 samples (Sirjan 14). Overview: Centre producing Lead-glazed Slip-incised and Slip-painted wares in the tenth and eleventh centuries, including some examples Slip-painted with medallions like the well-known "Sari" style. Macroscopic paste description: Fine pink- buff clay fabric. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, 2-10% mostly clear plagioclase, including fuzzy and sharp twin boundaries and some zoned; 6-2% quartz, mostly slightly cloudy to cloudy with abundant distinct lines of fluid inclusions; 2-5% untwinned feldspar; 1-4% amphibole; trace to 7% felsic volcanics including glassy textures, trachytic textures, and phenocrysts of quartz and feldspars; trace to 3% basic volcanics; 1-2% opaques; up to 3% carbonate; trace to 1% biotite; trace to 2% clinopyroxene; up to 1% microcline. Grains are poorly sorted, rounded to subrounded, with mode grainsize diameter of 0.07 mm and maximum of 0.35 mm, except SRJ.10, which is finer. Distinction: Apart from lithological differences in the volcanic rock fragments and other mineralogical differences, Sirjan appears to represent a single immature sand source, while Nishapur looks like a mix of several sources with large angular volcanic fragments. Location: Defined by analysis of trivets and pottery from the excavations at Sirjan by Andrew Williamson and currently stored at the Ashmolean Museum. Micrograph: Fig. 6.1. "TELL ASWAD 2" PETROFABRIC (Syria): 1 sample (Raqqa 1). Overview: Prototypical stonepaste piece found in ceramic industrial area of early ninth century Raqqa. Macroscopic paste description: Appears as an unusually hard porus grey clay fabric. Petrographic description: Contains about 30% quartz, comprising about 15% clear and 15% slightly cloudy with some cloudy grains, mostly straight to undulose extinction, poorly sorted angular, with mode diameter of 0.05 mm and maximum of 0.35 mm; 20% relict glass additive; 10% rounded light brown argillaceous inclusion between 0.09 mm and 0.35 mm in diameter, with no fissility but containing a scattering of fine opaques. Most of the remainder is a glassy clay matrix with less than 5% void. The argillaceous inclusions are probably clay nodules introduced with the clay. This piece shows marked similarities to the very early Egyptian Proto- stonepastes (see Chapter 4). Distinction: Highly distinctive and could not be confused with any other petrofabric, the only technically related body being the Proto-stonepaste body of Fustat, which lacks the clay inclusions. Location: The ultimate origins for this piece cannot be provided as yet. The nature of the quartz inclusions is not compatible with that found in the twelfth-century products of Raqqa (see below). However, it might be argued that different raw materials could have been used for this early and rare piece, other than those used for the much more substantial production of later Raqqa wares, so a source in the region is feasible. The form of the piece is too similar to those of Basra to be coincidence, and is very different from the forms of the only other Iraqi tin-opacified wares ("Samarra 2" Petrofabric, tentatively attributed to Baghdad; see Chapter 3). However, this would not rule out the possibility that a potter from Basra made pottery at Raqqa. Micrograph: Fig. 3.13. "TELL ASWAD 3" PETROFABRIC (Syria): 2 samples (Tell Aswad 2). Overview: One of a group of petrofabrics of pottery found in a ceramic industrial area of early ninth century Raqqa. This group includes two vessels with white tin-opacified glazes (too weathered to analyse properly) splash-painted with copper- turquoise and manganese-purple. Of these one has a wedge- shaped foot-ring on the base, practically identical to the products of Basra Group Two wares, which date to the late eighth century. The second has an unusual broad strap-band foot, which may be interpreted as a development from the other type. This similarity to Basra Group Two suggests that potters may have been brought to Raqqa from Basra, as has been reported for Samarra'. Macroscopic paste description: Pink porous fired clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 1-4% felsite, comprising cherty and fine trachytic types; 1-3% quartz, comprising clear to very cloudy and some equant polycrystalline grains with predominantly strongly undulose to undulose extinction; trace to 2% plagioclase, including clear, cloudy, and zoned examples, and some polycrystalline fragments presumably from a gabbro; trace microcline; 2% untwinned feldspar; trace to 1% amphibole; 1% clinopyroxene; up to trace biotite; 1-2% opaques; 1% basalt; 1% brown oxidized serpentine; and up to trace metamorphic rock. Grains are poorly sorted, subrounded to subangular and some rounded, mode diameter of around 0.1 mm and maximum of 0.4 mm. Distinction: Differs from "Tell Aswad 4" and "Tell Aswad 5" in the total lack of carbonate and chert; lacks the epidote and other minerals characteristic of "Tell Aswad 4." Location: The pottery was found in a ceramic industrial area but included no wasters or types found as wasters (large storage vessels, unglazed Moulded vessels, and Lead-glazed wares). This petrofabric may derive from a deposit formed by the River Belikh, which drains western Jazira, a region with a simpler geology of sedimentary rocks and basalt flows. Micrograph: Fig. 3.13. "TELL ASWAD 4" PETROFABRIC (Syria): 10 samples (Tell Aswad 10). Overview: One of a group of petrofabrics of pottery found in ceramic industrial area of early ninth century Raqqa. Types in this group include all the representatives of a ware with a yellow glaze, splash-painted with green, including one that has been formed by moulding (RQA.01). This group includes one of two examples among the Tell Aswad groups of an opacified glaze other than in the "Tell Aswad 3" group (RQA.20). The only sampled example of a large unglazed vessel (RQA.16) is also of this group. The forms of the glazed vessels again show affinities with Basra products, this time of the ninth century, but are less distinctive and may be a simple case of emulation. Macroscopic paste description: Porous pink clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 2-5% carbonate, comprising micrite with some sparite, in rounded to subrounded grains; 1-4% amphibole, probably an oxidized hornblende; 1-3% brown oxidized serpentine, including examples with asbestiform shear zones; 1-2% quartz, comprising clear to slightly cloudy with some polycrystalline of strongly undulose to undulose extinction; 1-2% epidote; 1- 2% felsite, comprising cherty textures, some with feldspar phenocrysts, and very fine trachytic textures; trace to 3% basalt, including examples with fine (7 × 50 ) plagioclase laths in glass or brown opaque material, coarser (50 × 200 ) plagioclase laths with intergranular clinopyroxene, and altered with interstitial amphibole, quartz, and epidote; 1-2% opaques; 1-2% chert; 1% clinopyroxene; trace to 2% untwinned feldspars; trace to 1% plagioclase usually cloudy or clear with sharp twin boundaries; up to trace microcline; trace to 2% muscovite; trace to 2% metamorphic rock, mainly quartz-muscovite and biotite-quartz schists; trace to 1% biotite. Grains poorly sorted, mostly subrounded to subangular, with mode diameter about 0.1 mm and maximum 0.5 mm. Distinction: Differs from "Tell Aswad 3" in that it includes carbonate, chert, and epidote, and on average contains proportionally more untwinned feldspar, amphibole, muscovite, and fragments of fine-grained metamorphic rock. Location: The pottery was found in the ceramic industrial area of ninth-century Raqqa. The group includes no wasters although it does include a large storage vessel, which is one of the general types found as wasters. This petrofabric most likely represents the Euphrates sediments in the area (see Chapter 3). Micrograph: Figs. 3.13, 5.1. "TELL ASWAD 5" PETROFABRIC (Syria): 5 samples (Tell Aswad 5). Overview: One of a group of petrofabrics of pottery found in the ceramic industrial area of early ninth century Raqqa. Types in this group include wares decorated with different-coloured glazes (Polychrome-glazed ware) and unglazed water jars. Macroscopic paste description: Porous pink clay. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 1-6% rounded grains of carbonate, probably fragments of limestone; 1-2% of quartz, mostly of slightly cloudy to cloudy grains with predominantly undulose extinction, and some polycrystalline; 1-2% felsic volcanics, of cherty and trachytic textures; 1-2% opaques; 1-2% basalt, including fine plagioclase laths (17 × 50 ) in opaque and coarser plagioclase (35 × 90 ) in glass or with intergranular opaque; 1-2% chert, commonly brownish and fossiliferous; 1% plagioclase, mostly clear with sharp twin boundaries or zoned; trace to 2% each of cloudy untwinned feldspar, amphibole (pale green to red pleochroism), and clinopyroxene; 1% serpentine, usually amorphous brown oxidized although some showing weak birefringence; trace to 1% microcline; up to 1% biotite; rare trace epidote, muscovite, and metamorphic rock (quartz-muscovite schist). Grains are mostly subangular to subrounded, moderately sorted with mode diameter of 0.04 mm and maximum of 0.26 mm. Distinction: This petrofabric is easily distinguished from "Tell Aswad 4" by the almost total absence of epidote, and on average it has less amphibole, less muscovite, and fewer fragments of metamorphic rock. Location: The pottery was found in the ceramic industrial area of ninth-century Raqqa, but the group includes no wasters. The raw material may derive from a deposit formed by the River Belikh, which drains western Jazira with its geology of sedimentary rocks and basalt flows, but it is perhaps more probable that the petrofabric constitutes a variety of Euphrates sediment. Micrograph: Fig. 5.1. "TELL MINIS" PETROFABRIC (western Syria): 10 samples (Ma‘arrat al-Nu‘man [Bartels Gift] 2, Raqqa 2, Fustat 1, ‘Acharneh [‘Asharna] 4, remainder unknown). Overview: Includes Syrian Group One or "Tell Minis" style Lustre-painted wares and three of four sampled Polychrome- relief or "Laqabi" wares, two from ‘Acharneh. Macroscopic paste description: Stonepaste, dense white body with barely discernible granularity. Petrographic description: Stonepaste body comprising predominantly quartz grains fused together by filamentous glass. Body includes about 50-60% quartz, comprising 2-15% clear, 20-25% slightly cloudy, 10-20% cloudy, 1-10% very cloudy, with little or no sheared or polycrystalline quartz, but this may be a function of the fine grainsize; mostly straight but occasional strongly undulose extinction; also trace to 5% chert or cryptocrystalline quartz. Maximum grainsize diameter 0.15- 0.2 mm. Occasional grains may show facets of rounded sand, which if they had been preserved uncrushed would have a diameter of perhaps around 0.5 mm. Distinction: The finely ground inclusions are very distinctive, but this is a technological feature and not necessarily related to provenance. Although the fine grainsize makes comparison difficult, the relative clarity of the quartz and inclusions of cryptocrystalline quartz make it distinct from comparable petrofabrics. Location: The traditional attribution of the "Tell Minis" style to western Syria has been based on numerous finds of saleable vessels (in both the ancient and the modern pottery markets) in the region, including a cache of thirteen vessels found at Tell Minis itself (Porter and Watson 1987). Further associations with western Syria were suggested by the Hama excavations, where a large number was found, while other finds were made in Damascus and Ma‘arrat al-Nu‘man (Porter and Watson 1987). Nothing is known of the find-spot of the ROM bowls (see Appendix A), but they were purchased from a Beirut dealer. Micrograph: Fig. 5.2. "YEMEN 2" PETROFABRIC (Iraq): 2 samples (Zabid 1, Lasail 1). Overview: Minor ninth-century south Iraqi centre producing Turquoise-glazed Hib-type jars. Macroscopic paste description: Fine buff fired-clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 4-5% quartz, clear to slightly cloudy, straight to undulose extinction, well to moderately sorted, rounded to subangular grains with mode diameter of 0.02 mm and maximum of 0.12 mm; 1-4% untwinned feldspar; trace to 1% clinopyroxene; trace to 1% amphibole; and trace amounts of plagioclase, microcline, biotite, opaques, felsic volcanics of glassy and cherty textures, basalt of fine plagioclase laths in oxidized brown material, and brown fissile argillite; all of same granulometry as quartz. Distinction: Similar in mineralogy to Basra and affines, but somewhat coarser; finer and containing less ferromagnesian minerals than other known Iraqi petrofabrics ("Samarra 2," "Samarra 3"). Location: This petrofabric is solely represented by pottery from outside of Iraq, Lasail and Zabid. This petrofabric is sufficiently similar to the Basra affines to suggest a southern Iraqi origin. The coarser grainsize does not rule out an origin in the Basra region, but the other Iraqi petrofabrics seem to fit a model of increasing grainsize further upstream (excluding aeolian grains), so a region further upstream might be likely. Micrograph: None. "YEMEN 3" PETROFABRIC (Iraq): 2 samples (Zabid 1, Lasail 1). Overview: Minor ninth-century south Iraqi centre producing Turquoise-glazed Hib-type jars. Macroscopic paste description: Fine buff fired-clay body. Petrographic description: Fired-clay matrix, with 3-4% quartz, clear to slightly cloudy, predominantly straight with some undulose extinctions, well sorted, rounded to subrounded, with mode diameter of 0.026mm and maximum of 0.1 mm; about 2% of what appears to have been a micritic carbonate that was largely destroyed and is now represented by voids, subrounded to subangular, diameter between 0.035 mm and 0.1 mm; 1% each of cloudy untwinned feldspar, opaques, and felsic volcanics; 1% to trace plagioclase, biotite, and clinopyroxene; trace amounts of amphibole, chert, basalt, and muscovite; all except carbonate of same granulometry as quartz. Although larger rounded grains are not evident in the body they are present in the glaze, and are mostly quartz, clear to slightly cloudy, with mostly straight to undulose and some strongly undulose extinctions; also including plagioclase and untwinned feldspars. Grains are well sorted and rounded to well rounded, with a mode diameter of 0.1 mm and maximum of 0.35 mm. Distinction: The description is similar to Basra in its abundance and grainsize distribution of most minerals, but the body lacks a coarse population of rounded quartz sand, has a distinctly higher abundance of ferromagnesian minerals such as biotite, contains volcanic rock, and has a higher relative abundance of fine quartz. Location: Given the similarities to the Basra group, it is possible that "Yemen 3" Petrofabric represents a distinct workshop in Basra; more likely it is from another centre in the region further upstream that receives more silt from the Tigris and Euphrates. Micrograph: None. Return to Table of Contents